In the Polish-Lithuanian state at the end of the 16th century, keeping up with what is „fashionable” in the European art was part of natural refinement mixed with self-creation at the arena of public affairs. Examples to be followed were provided by the royal court, and after the time of “deluge”, in equal part by the magnates, who were almost sovereign rulers over vast lands of their latifundia. The then disposers of art intuitively reached to centres enjoying a well-established position. They were located in the Apennine Peninsula and in northern Europe. In the times of John III Sobieski, strong inspirations also came from France. This resulted in stylistic diversity, supported by adaptation of artistic novelties to local needs and traditions, as well as financial means and expectations of ordering parties. Finally, a significant influence on Baroque art in the Republic of Poland was also exercised by artists of various creative capabilities — local ones as well as those brought from almost all around Europe. This ambiguity, also due to the establishment of regional versions of the Baroque in the vast territory of the Polish-Lithuanian state, makes it difficult to determine clear chronological and stylistic dividing lines. It is helpful to relate them to subsequent rulers on the throne of the Republic of Poland. Thus, during the reign of Sigismund III Vasa, a new style was adopted. The time of rule of his sons: Władysław IV and John Casimir, is a period of undisputable domination of the Baroque, when numerous refined pieces of European class were created, especially in court circles. The time after the “deluge” is a period of a mature Baroque, which was a calmer version referring to Classicism, or a formally and emotionally unsettled one, called emotive version. Both approaches are represented in the art created in the circles of John III. The beginning of the 18th century marks the arrival of late Baroque.
First Baroque forms appeared very early in the Republic of Poland, almost simultaneously with their establishment in Italian art, i.e. as early as in 1780s and 1790s, and functioned next to late Renaissance and Mannerist ones. Most prone to changes were architecture and sculpture — arts leading also in the Renaissance period. Baroque architecture was introduced in the Republic of Poland by religious orders associated with the post—Trento renewal. Of particular importance were in this regard the Jesuits, who brought their own architect—monks directly from Italy. On the initiative of Mikołaj „the Orphan” Radziwiłł, in Nieśwież, the very centre of his estate, one of the most modern temples was created of the first phase of the functioning of the Jesuit order in the Republic of Poland, but also the phase of adopting formal solutions corresponding to the new spirit. The temple was erected in the years 1585—1593, based on the design by Giovanni Maria Bernardoni. The construction is a three—nave basilica, with a dome at the intersection of the main nave and the transept. Into the side naves (initially with matroneums), two symmetrical chapels open up, planned as tombs. The presbytery is closed in a semi—circle, with an adjoining sacristy and a small treasury. The monumental building with the interior characterized by an already Baroque articulation and with the concentric accent in form of the dome, is completed by a façade, at that time the one most inspired by Roman solutions.
Another important Jesuit temple was built in the then capital city of Cracow. Although its designer is still being disputed, he must have known the landmark Jesuit church of Il Gesù as well as other Roman temples, including S. Andrea della Valle and S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini. The layout of the body of the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul (1597—1619), that is the nave with three pairs of connected chapels opening up into it, in comparison with the prototype, is deprived, among others, of connections adjoining the transept, which in Cracow has been broadened. The creative approach resulted in even more compositional density and the dominant dome, as well as the clear verticalism of the interior and its slender proportions, with the emphasis on the view on the ideologically most significant place, that is the presbytery. An excellent addition to the structure of the Cracow church is the façade of Roman provenience: two—storey, with balanced vertical and horizontal divisions, axial and symmetrical, and with consequently and consistently shaped decorative elements, created by court artists.
The church of St. Peter and St. Paul was built under royal auspices, which is still clearly visible thanks to the coat of arms of Sigismund III placed on top of the façade, made of chunky and precisely cut stone. The first ruler from the Vasa dynasty, sitting on the throne of the Republic of Poland from 1587, had excellent education, was a passionate painter and goldsmith, and very knowledgeable about the art of his time. It is, therefore, not surprising, that on his inspiration, in the Wawel Castle, reconstructed from 1595, early Baroque solutions were introduced. Works which survive until today, and which were started due to a fire, caused probably by the king himself, conducting alchemist experiments, include mainly a staircase (Senatorskie stairs) in the north—west corner of the castle, at that time quite a modern one. It is made of two—flight stairs, divided by comfortable, broad landings. The monumental impression is owed also to stone portals, evoking the Antique style, with a shape which will become part of the mandatory repertoire of forms repeated and transformed in the 17th century numerous times.
About 1602, an unknown stucco workshop, evidently of Roman practice, created decorations of the cabinet and the private royal chapel, strengthening the tendency towards stucco decorations in lay and sacral interiors. Marble portal framings as well as fireplaces made by Ambrogio Meazzi and Lucas Reitino introduced not only Baroque formal solutions in architecture decoration, but also the mandatory use of colourful lime stones from Małopolska, then called marble. On commissions of nobility and wealthy townsmen, those two sculptors created also traditional tombstones with a lying figure (for example, the tombstone of Jan Gemma in the Franciscan church in Cracow, ca. 1608), in which they used balanced architectural divisions characteristic for early Baroque.
A significant role played also wooden ceilings of the reconstructed Wawel castle. Presented on them were paintings by Tommaso Dolabella. The artist, brought from Venice in 1598, glorified the king and the Vasa dynasty in historical scenes. The painter was appreciated also outside the royal court, and with his clearly constructed narrations he arrived at a time when clearness of expression was highly valued, especially in religious art. His painting were, therefore, often commissioned for church interiors. One of the most interesting of his works, being a testimony to his Venetian education, is the cycle from the church of Canons Regular of the Lateran in Kraśnik (ca. 1615), telling the story of the victory over the Turks in Lepanto in 1571 in the context of the rosary prayer and the cult of St. Mary of the Snows, worshiped in the basilica S. Maria Maggiore in Rome.
However, Sigismund III did not limit himself to Italian art, as proven by, among others, his commission given in 1624 to the workshop of Peter Paul Rubens, to make a series of portraits of his own and his family. The king was familiar with the art of one of the most outstanding artists of northern Europe, and wanted the sought—after portrait painter of the then monarchs to capture the royal visage. The same wish to emphasize his affiliation with European elites and awareness of the need to create proper splendour made Sigismund III commission goldsmith works in Augsburg workshops.
Early Baroque art in the Republic of Poland was shaped also by local artists, the most prominent of which was Krzystof Boguszewicz. He was the author of successful religious paintings, through which he skilfully answered the demand for a zealous and committed narrative tied to fights between the Catholics and the Protestants, who not only negated part of the truths of the faith, but also the need for existence of religious art. The nobleman and painter, cooperating with theologians, created multi-figure scenes, painted precisely and with chiaroscuro modelling, as shown by the painting St. Martin of Tour (1628).
The need to manifest the Eucharistic cult of Corpus Christi, but also to introduce a proper framing for the reformed, post—Trento liturgy, provided the basis for a new type of altar, following the model of a triumphal arch. An example of such a work is the altar, carved in wood, in the church of Corpus Christi in Kazimierz district of Cracow (about 1634—1637), made by Baltazar Kuncz, who used there Baroque auricular style ornaments of northern Dutch provenience.
Sigismund III, supporting post—Trento ideas, was interested also in the work of another religious order committed to the Church’s renewal. Discalced Carmelites, too, applied the model developed in Il Gesù, naturally adapting it to their own needs, as in the no longer existing church of St. Michael and St. Josef in Cracow (1611—1635), as well as in the church of St. Theresa in Vilnius (1633—1644), designed by Constante Tencalla in the stern Roman spirit. Those were, however, already the times of Władysław IV, when Baroque art was well—established in the Republic of Poland and even developed its local versions. In that period, a clear shift of political centres took place, which meant a shift in artistic centres as well.
In 1569, Warsaw was chosen as the town where sessions of the whole parliament were to take place, and Sigismund III declared it the place of permanent residence of his court. The result was not only the decision to expand the Warsaw Castle (from 1596 to 1613), with works conducted by Matteo Castelli, who was able to ideally integrate the irregular body of the building into the urban planning of the town, but also the requirement to supplement the program of the royal residence by erecting a suburban seat in Ujazdów (from 1624) and lesser palaces for the royal family in Krakowskie Przedmieście street. The direction of architectural expansion, set at that time, was dictated mainly by the wish to use the particularly picturesque Vistula bank, and was continued later by John III, who founded the residence in Wilanów.
Simultaneously, following the example of Sigismund III and his family, the nobility, and in particular the aristocracy, started to invest at an unpreceded scale in organization of residences in the new political capital of the state. Worth mentioning is here the no longer existing palace of Stanisław Koniecpolski, with an original layout resembling the letter H (late 1640s). Emphasized must be not so much the existence of a representative staircase leading to a grand room facing the Vistula River, with a grotto organized in the lower stairway, but mostly the baroque axial design of the whole architectural and garden layout. This element will become a mandatory solution in the second half of the 17th century.
The need to adorn the new capital of the state was pursued also by Władysław IV, who during his travels through Europe in the years 1624—1625 saw many important residences and participated in various interesting cultural events. He rebuilt the Royal Castle, where, among others, theatre and opera rooms were introduced, as a result of personal passions of the second ruler from the Vasa dynasty on the Polish—Lithuanian throne. On the initiative of the king, Giovanni Battista Gisleni designed the so—called Marble Cabinet (after 1637), featuring a gallery of portraits painted by, among others, Pieter Danckerts, and set in rich stone framing. The Cabinet gave praise to the glory of the Vasa dynasty, related to the Jagiellons and the Habsburgs. Also, it was probably the most Roman interior on the first half of the 17th century, in its splendour equalling the Italian ones. In addition, Władysław IV ordered reconstruction of the square in front of the castle, where through joint endeavours of Agostino Locci the Elder, Constante Tencalla and Clemente Molli, the monument of Sigismund III was erected — one of the most illustrious lay monuments of the European Baroque and a clear reference to the idea of statues of antique emperors. This glorified not only Sigismund III, the ideal monarch and protector of the faith, but also the whole Vasa dynasty, solidifying its rule over the Polish and Lithuanian state.
An important communicative and representative role played also portraits commissioned by a broad circle of noblemen, following the example of the king. Formally, the paintings originated mainly from northern and middle European traditions, but due to the national dress worn by nobility, they constituted a separate group from court portraits. Represented was usually the whole person, with the principle of resemblance being equally important to display of attributes of their class and offices held by them. The background of portraits was often enriched, with added elegancy provided by a column and a drape, like in the portrait of Łukasz Opaliński, dated ca. 1635, but also by presenting in the empty space important places or events from the life of the model (for example, the Hungarians in the portrait of Jan Dobrogost Krasiński, ca. 1700).
Original works, in comparison with the European art, are coffin portraits, which played a crucial role during funerals as an embodiment of the deceased, who remained between the two worlds. The dead were painted as torsos, usually on a metal sheet, with plain background. The shape of the portrait was a cross—section of the coffin to which it was attached. Presented were always still living persons, with the emphasis on or even accentuation of their characteristic physical traits, even those considered defective. A small but very interesting collection of such portraits can be admired in the gallery of the Wilanów Palace.
Known in the Republic of Poland of the Baroque period was also sculpted portrait, with a notable example being the torso of Krzysztof Mikołaj Sapieha from his tombstone (after 1631), hanging in the church of St. Michael in Vilnius, created by brothers Constante and Giovanni Giacomo Tencalla. The piece is characterized by colourful contrasts, providing a background for a powerful representation of a cool and unapproachable face of the young aristocrat. Created in the same period was the arrangement of eight kneeling figures of representatives of the Ligęza family (1630—1638) for the Bernardine church in Rzeszów, planned as part of the family’s mausoleum. Those superb alabaster sculptures are associated by some with Sebastian Sala.
Very successful works are also torsos of John Casimir and Marie Louise, made in Carrara marble by Giovanni Francesca de Rossi, who was definitely the best sculptor working in the Republic of Poland in the first half of the 17th century, cooperating with such aces of Baroque Rome as Gianlorenzo Bernini and Alessandro Algardi. Rossi’s art focused on showing emotions of the model, capturing resemblance not only of the face, but also of movement, which is perfectly expressed in the torso of bishop of Vilnius Jerzy Tyszkiewicz (1653) and bishop of Cracow Piotr Gembicki (1654) from the tombstone in the Wawel cathedral. The latter piece is a joint work by Rossi and the above mentioned Giovanni Battista Gisleni.
At the same time, further development of stucco decoration can be observed. An important representative of this art was indisputably Giovanni Battista Falconi, who, by organically merging stucco with architecture, created openwork and chiaroscuro solutions based on cartouches and plant motives. An example of his work is the chapel of the Oświęcim family (1647—1648) at the Franciscan church in Krosno.
Dated at ca. 1647 is the decoration of the church in Tarłów, where all arts create a consistent narrative, presenting, in form of allusions, the history of the founders of the temple — the Opaliński family, and at the same time condemning Arianism, the position followed by their ancestors. Particularly interesting is the Chapel of Jesus, which serves also as a tomb chapel, where stucco decorations show vanity topics: Dance Macabre and the Circle of Life and Death, recreated with panache in realities of the mid—17th century. An aristocrat can be seen there, with a puffy face and wearing a bonnet adorned with a jewellery aigrette, as well as a bowing noblemen — a poor steward serving the mighty master.
The successful development of Baroque art was stopped by wars fought right at the start of the second half of the 17th century. After that period, for good reason called “deluge”, when the Republic of Poland was devastated by Swedish and Moscow troops, at the time of John Casimir and Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki, the main focus fell on rebuilding of the country. New foundations appeared in late 1660s, initiated by the Pac family, which founded the church of Camaldolese in Pažaislis (1667—1684) and the church of Canons Regular of the Lateral in Antakalnis in Vilnius (1668—1676). The temple in Pažaislis, extraordinary in every term, together with the monastery constitutes an indivisible complex, designed axially and symmetrically, with different viewpoints and escaping space. It was erected on a very rarely used hexagonal plan. This shape is reflected by the nave, into which two sets of chapels open up. In the external outline, this translates into an octagonal body. Emphasized must be also one absolutely remarkable solution — the façade of the church in Pažaislis is concaved and was probably inspired by the church of S. Agnese in Agone, being completed at that time by Francesco Borromini. This makes it the second solution of that kind in Europe.
After the „deluge”, also the talent of Daniel Schultz could flourish. Schultz was definitely the best portrait painter working in the 17th century Commonwealth, who successfully depicted animalistic topics as well, being very popular in the Baroque period. Schultz’s art, originating from the need to emphasize the model’s psychology and based on images built with rich colours, perfectly fits the increasingly emotional chiaroscuro art of the times of John Casimir. Schultz, who started at workshops in Gdańsk, went on numerous journeys, and learned, among others, in Holland, Flanders and France, becoming familiar with works of Rembrandt and Anthon van Dyck. As the court painter of the last of ruler from the Vasa dynasty on the Polish and Lithuanian throne, he created an exceptional gallery of king’s images, registering changing moods reflected in his face: from pride from the power held, to melancholy and depression the ruler suffered from. Daniel Schultz worked also for the greatest dignitaries of state and church, and the most noteworthy portrait he created is probably the one of bishop Andrzej Trzebicki (1664). In the picture, the hierarch seems to be stepping out of the shadows, in pontifical clothes, approaching the viewer.
New foundations in Warsaw after the „deluge” start with the Holy Cross Church (1679—1696) designed by Józef Szymon Bellotti, based on a wall and pillar schema. The temple was erected as a two—storey building, with the lower part serving as a chapel connected with crypts for burials of benefactors of the missionary monastery, coming from among the most prominent residents of the town. In the layout of the church pillars protruding towards the nave are introduced, and the effect of centralization of the interior is achieved thanks to the three—span presbytery closed in a straight line. The whole design is tied up by Corinthian pilasters, bearing piling entablature. Equally interesting is the façade of the church, completed about mid—19th century, embraced by two retreating towers. Thanks to this seemingly easy solution, the elevation viewed from the street (side view) is not constricted.
The construction of the Holy Cross Church falls at a time when the Republic of Poland was already ruled by John III Sobieski. An important role in development of residential architecture played the palace erected by the king in Wilanów (1677—1696) based on the design of Agostino Locci the Younger. The body of the royal seat was built between the courtyard and the garden (entre court et jardin), joining the main and side axes with distant views through a system of alleys, which is a French feature. The representative architecture was accompanied by equally rich interior design — the joint work of numerous stucco artists and painters, praising the glory of the victor of the battles of Chocim and Vienna, which through marital ties was enjoyed also by his wife Marie Casimire.
The most splendid palaces at that time, however, were designed by Tylman van Gameren, a Dutchman brought to the Republic of Poland by Stanisław Herakliusz Lubomirski, for whom the palace in Puławy (1671—1677) was built. The residence, thoroughly rebuilt in the 18th and 19th centuries, standing on the high Vistula bank, was the first one in Poland deprived of defence features. What is important, the façade of the residence had a portico in an antique style, made of a front supported by pseudopilasters. For his patron, Tylman van Gameren erected also a series of buildings — pavilions situated in the garden in Ujazdów, thus creating an exclusive suburban residence. The most famous of the pavilions was the Bathroom (after 1676), housing a rotunda imitating a grotto, with a centrally situated pool and residential apartments and offices located around it. This building became part of the Palace on the Water, erected by Stanisław August Poniatowski. Fortunately, still clearly visible are the stucco decorations of two offices of the former Bathroom, made by Carlo Giuseppe Giorgioli. They depict mythological scenes, where water serves as a landscape background for love affairs of antique gods. Furthermore, in Czerniaków near Warsaw, Tylman von Gameren built a church of the Bernardine order, serving also as a mausoleum of Lubomirski. What is interesting, the building was composed of two central structures.
The Dutch architect worked also for other principals, including the Sobieski family, for which he designed the church of the Capuchin order (1683—1686) in Warsaw and the temple of the Benedictines of the Sacrament in Nowe Miasto (1688—1692), as well as Marywil (1692—1695), formally and ideologically originating from Parisian palaces of Henry IV, combining the residence of Sobieskis with a luxurious hotel and commerce space. For Jan Dobrogost Krasiński, Tylman van Gameren built his Warsaw residence, which is justly considered the most splendid work of the Dutchman. Impressive is not only the scale of the establishment of entre court et jardin type, which originally corresponded more or less to the area of the Old Town. The palace was erected on an elongated layout with an avant—corps in the central part, countered by side corner pavilions. Located centrally, there were representative rooms, and in side parts — residential apartments. Emphasized must be the consequence and rhythm of architectural divisions of the elevation as well as the consistent composition of the garden space, with a far view on the election field in Wola. Important was the ideological program of the residence, where the glory of the Krasiński family was praised, going back to the legendary Roman ancestors of the house. Interestingly, Andreas Schlüter from Gdańsk, working on the sculpture decorations of the palace, introduced many ideas of Tylman in the Berlin castle he later designed.
All of the above mentioned sacral and lay structures were richly decorated with frescos and stucco. It must be emphasized that after the period of the “deluge”, many talented artists were active in the Republic of Poland, either brought from Europe or originating from local workshops. First, mentioned should be the artists brought by the Pac family to decorate the church of Camaldolese in Pažaislis near Kaunas and the church of St. Peter and Paul in Antakalnis in Vilnius, because after completion of those works, they were hired by other prominent principals in the Republic of Poland, including John III (Wilanów), and even at the imperial court (Martino Altomonte). And so, Krzysztof Zygmunt Pac brought, among others, Michelangelo Palloni, a superb painter, whose work originated from the circle of followers of Pietro da Cortona and the Venice school, and who was familiar also with Bernini’s solutions based on situational lighting and the three unities of art (for example, the chapel of St. Casimir in the Vilnius cathedral, after 1692, together with Pietro Perti; the oratory of the missionaries in Łowicz, ca. 1695).
Also in 1677, Michał Kazimierz Pac brought to the Republic of Poland Pietro Perti and Giovanni Maria Galli, who in the Vilnius temple, characterized by rather traditional architecture, introduced rich stucco decorations — figurative and ornamental, which, like carpets, cover almost all of the space. At a later time, Pietro Perti worked, among others, for the Sapieha family, creating stuccos at the extraordinary church of Trinitarians in Vilnius (1694—1712), which was erected on an almost round layout and covered with an enormous dome. The church was designed by another builder working in the Pac circle, Giovanni Battista Frediani.
Pietro Perti represented the Classicisms—related trend, characterized by monumentality and harmony of representations. An outstanding representative of the emotive trend was, on the other hand, Baldassare Fontana, with his most important work being the decoration of the church of St. Anna in Cracow, designed by Tylman van Gameren. In the years 1695—1703, Fontana’s team, made of, among others, painters Carl and Innocent Monti as well as Karl Dankwart, created a total work, the most important principles of which can be described as the three unities of art, situational lighting, movement and emotions.
Decorations of the Vilnius church (in Antakalnis) and the Cracow church are definitely the most splendid realizations of mature Baroque found on the Polish and Lithuanian soil, and which would be just as impressive if created in the Apennine Peninsula. This was also an excellent period for woodcarving works. Mentioned must be mainly the altar of the miraculous figure in the church in Gidle (1669—1670) by Jan Garlicki, a pulpit in form of the tree of Jesse in the church of the Order of St. Claire in Stary Sącz (1672), as well as pipe organ casings from Pelplin (1674—1680) and Leżajsk (1675—1678, 1687—1693). These are works not only richly decorated with Baroque ornaments (auricular, acanthus, fruit and flower garlands) and multicolour polychromes, but also characterized by individual iconographic programs, which can be considered a kind of theological treaties.
Finally, worth mentioning are painters gathered around John III. They strongly believed in art searching for the ideal beauty, harmony and clear composition, that is art related to the Classicism. In this group, the highest rank must be given to a Pole — Jerzy Eleuter Szymonowicz Siemiginowski, who started as a help at the painting workshop in Lviv, and ended his long life with the title of count. Thanks to the royal support, he went to study in Rome, where he won a prize and became member of the elite St. Lukas Academy, which shaped him as an artist. Siemiginowski was not only talented, but also versatile, creating, among others, graphics. He is known as the author of superb portraits of John III and his family, and as a successful decorator of the palace in Wilanów. The artist used various topics and techniques, among them dry fresco, through which he realized the ideal vision of beauty and harmony of love at the background of Polish landscapes (Wilanów, 1680s). He also proved himself as a designer of altars and sculptures. In his works, echoes of Classicism related Baroque can be found, following the footsteps of Carlo Maratta, Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorraine.
Portrait painter François Desportes was an artist whose work originated from the French Baroque. After the death of John III, he returned to his homeland and worked successfully at the court of Luis XIV. Martino Altomonte painted battle scenes and praised triumphs of his royal principal (Battle of Vienna, Battle of Parkany, 1693—1694), and later on became a renowned and popular painter at the Austrian court. Jan Reisner, accompanying Jerzy Siemiginowski during his studies in Rome and a laureate of the prize of St. Lukas Academy, was a versatile artist. He not only took up painting and architecture, but was also hired as a geometrician and geographer. His two master paintings Lamentation of Christ and Glory of St. Francis de Sales (both before 1698) can be still admired at the church of the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary in Warsaw.
All of the above mentioned artists and works of art make up a differentiated, but extremely interesting and original landscape among the European Baroque art.
